Afforestation

AFFORESTATION

ABSTRACT

Increased carbon storage with afforestation leads to a decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and thus decreases radiative forcing and cools the Earth. However, afforestation also changes the reflective properties of the surface vegetation from more reflective pasture to relatively less reflective forest cover. This increase in radiation absorption by the forest constitutes an increase in radiative forcing, with a warming effect. The net effect of decreased albedo and carbon storage on radiative forcing depends on the relative magnitude of these two opposing processes.

We used data from an intensively studied site in New Zealand's Central North Island that has long-term, ground-based measurements of albedo over the full short-wave spectrum from a developing Pinus radiata forest. Data from this site were supplemented with satellite-derived albedo estimates from New Zealand pastures. The albedo of a well-established forest was measured as 13 % and pasture albedo as 20 %. We used these data to calculate the direct radiative forcing effect of changing albedo as the forest grew.

INTRODUCTION

Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no forest. Reforestation is the reestablishment of forest cover, either naturally (by natural seeding, coppice, or root suckers) or artificially (by direct seeding or planting). Many governments and non-governmental organizations directly engage in programs of afforestation to create forests, increase carbon capture and sequestration, and help to anthropogenically improve biodiversity. (In the UK, afforestation may mean converting the legal status of some land to "royal forest".) Special tools, e.g. tree planting bar, are used to make planting of trees easier and faster.

IN AREAS OF DEGRADED SOIL

In some places, forests need help to reestablish themselves because of environmental factors. For example, in arid zones, once forest cover is destroyed, the land may dry and become inhospitable to new tree growth. Other factors include overgrazing by livestock, especially animals such as goats, cows, and over-harvesting of forest resources. Together these may lead to desertification and the loss of topsoil; without soil, forests cannot grow until the long process of soil creation has been completed - if erosion allows this. In some tropical areas, forest cover removal may result in a duricrust or duripan that effectively seal off the soil to water penetration and root growth. In many areas, reforestation is impossible because people are using the land. In other areas, mechanical breaking up of duripans or duricrusts is necessary, careful and continued watering may be essential, and special protection, such as fencing, may be needed.

WORLD REGIONS

Brazil

Because of the extensive Amazon deforestation during the last decades and ongoing, the small efforts of afforestation are insignificant on a national scale of the Amazon Rainforest^.

China

China has deforested most of its historically wooded areas. China reached the point where timber yields declined far below historic levels, due to over-harvesting of trees beyond sustainable yield. Although it has set official goals for reforestation, these goals were set for an 80 year time horizon and are not significantly met by 2008. China is trying to correct these problems by projects as the Green Wall of China, which aims to replant a great deal of forests and halt the expansion of the Gobi desert. A law promulgated in 1981 requires that every citizen over the age of 11 plant at least one tree per year. As a result, China currently has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 square kilometers of afforestation in 2008. However, the forest area per capita is still far lower than the international average. An ambitious proposal for China is the Aerially Delivered Re-forestation and Erosion Control System

North Africa

In North Africa, the sahara forest project coupled with the Seawater Greenhouse has been proposed. Some projects have also been launched in countries as Senegal to revert desertification. As of 2010, African leaders are discussing the combining of national countries in their continent to increase effectiveness. In addition, other projects as the Keita project in Niger have been launched in the past, and have been able to locally revert damage done by desertification. See Development_aid#Effectiveness

Europe

Europe has deforested the majority of its historical forests. The European Union (EU) has paid farmers for afforestation since 1990, offering grants to turn farmland back into forest and payments for the management of forest. Between 1993 and 1997, EU afforestation policies made possible the re-forestation of over 5,000 square kilometres of land. A second program, running between 2000 and 2006, afforested more than 1000 square kilometres of land (precise statistics not yet available). A third such program began in 2007.

In Poland, the National Program of Afforestation was introduced by the government after World War II, when total area of forests shrank to 20% of country's territory. Consequently, forested areas of Poland grew year by year, and on December 31, 2006, forests covered 29% of the country (see: Polish forests). It is planned that by 2050, forests will cover 33% of Poland.

According to FAO statistics, Spain had the third fastest afforestation rate in Europe in the 1990-2005 period, after Iceland and Ireland. In those years, a total of 44,360 square kilometers were afforested, and the total forest cover rose from 13,5 to 17,9 million hectares. In 1990, forests covered 26,6% of the Spanish territory. As of 2007, that figure had risen to 36,6%. Spain today has the fifth largest forest area in the European Union.

Iran

Iran is considered a low forest cover region of the world with present cover approximating seven percent of the land area. This is a value reduced by an estimated six million hectares of virgin forest, which includes oak, almond and pistacio. Due to soil substrates, it is difficult to achieve afforestation on a large scale compared to other temperate areas endowed with more fertile and less rocky and arid soil conditions. Consequently, most of the afforestation is conducted with non-native species, leading to habitat destruction for native flora and fauna, and resulting in an accelerated loss of biodiversity.

COMMERCE AND AFFORESTATION

Commercially, wood is required for various purposes such as timber, paper pulp, wood pulp, charcoal, fuel, etc. Afforestation for commercial purposes has led to the growth of plantation forests, where trees are grown primarily as agricultural plantation crops and harvested accordingly. This, in turn, has helped prevent further exploitation and destruction of natural forests.
According to a report published by the Australian National University, the area under plantation forests globally had increased to 135 million hectares by 1997, with annual plantation afforestation and reforestation rates nearing 10 per cent of the total area. About 75 per cent of these plantation forests were established in temperate regions as the rate of expansion has been the highest in tropical areas.

SUCCESSFUL AFFORESTATION

The scope of afforestation should extend from simple planting of trees to planting the right types of trees at the right places. Many communities and countries have already taken steps towards setting standards for planning, designing and executing afforestation projects. The Climate Community and Biodiversity Alliance (CCBA) is one such example. The CCBA is working towards creating standards in this field.
Britain offers an example of successful, sustainable and standardised afforestation and reforestation management. According to Forest Research, a research organisation under Britain’s Forestry Commission, at the start of the 20th century the forest reserves in Britain were less than 5 per cent due to centuries of deforestation. Since 1919, there has been a sustained expansion of forest cover in many areas of the country. As a result, at the beginning of the 21st century, forests cover nearly 12 per cent of Britain, with the figure in parts of Scotland nearing 25 per cent. In other words, areas of the country have moved from being ‘forest poor’ to becoming ‘forest rich’. The achievements represented by this expansion of forest cover have been internationally recognised as the opportunities for diversifying the forests to meet the multiple criteria of sustainable forest management. The new forests that have been created provide the opportunity for developing modern wood processing industries that are internationally competitive yet help support a diversified and vibrant rural economy.
Another great example of successful afforestation is Israel. About 70 per cent of Israel’s forests are man-made. They have managed to successfully execute afforestation in harsh desert conditions and have consequently prevented the desert from expanding. The Yatri Forest in Israel, which was planted by the Jewish National Fund in 1964, is a healthy mix of vegetation and forest animals today.
In the years to come, continuous and sincere efforts in this sphere would be of vital importance. Afforestation could be the answer if amalgamation of commerce and environment on a sustainable basis is to be achieved globally.

ENVIRONMENT AND AFFORESTATION

The effects of an increasing population, growing pollution and the consequent decrease in forest area on the environment are well known. Afforestation is the answer to some extent, but needs to be carried out in a structured way with thorough knowledge of local environment, vegetation, soil type and socio-economic issues; not knowing or ignoring local conditions can prove extremely dangerous to the ecosystem.
A sustainable and well-planned afforestation project helps improve soil conservation, catchment management and water quality. Such a project can also act as a wind barricade, as in the case of the  Great Green Wall Project in China. A very ambitious afforestation project that has spanned 70 years and 4,480km, it involves the building of a tree wall skirting the Gobi Desert. The tree wall is being built with the sole aim of fighting and acting as a barricade to ferocious sandstorms originating from the desert.
Afforestation projects undertaken without a complete understanding of the surroundings can cause additional environmental damages. For instance, fast-growing trees commonly used in timber plantations consume huge amounts of water, hence depleting water resources around the area. There are also concerns about irreversible changes in the soil caused by exotic species. For example, pine trees are known to turn the soil acidic. The water from the soil eventually trickles down to local streams and water bodies, which, in turn, causes harm to both the water and land ecosystems.
The concern mainly arises with large-scale monoculture tree plantations in Third World countries. Such plantations are usually set up for the purposes of abundant and cheap supply of raw materials to industrialised countries. A number of non-government organisations have joined hands to form a global network in order to share information and implement joint action against such plantations.

NATIONAL AFFORESTATION AND ECO-DEVELOPMENT BOARD

The National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB), set up in August 1992,is responsible for promoting afforestation, tree planting, ecological restoration and eco-development activities in the country, with special attention to the degraded forest areas and lands adjoining the forest areas, national parks, sanctuaries and other protected areas as well as the ecologically fragile areas like the Western Himalayas, Aravallis, Western Ghats, etc. The detailed role and functions of the NAEB are given below.

• Evolve mechanisms for ecological restoration of degraded forest areas and adjoining lands through systematic planning and implementation, in a cost effective manner;
• Restore through natural regeneration or appropriate intervention the forest cover in the country for ecological security and to meet the fuel wood, fodder and other needs of the rural communities;
• Restore fuel wood, fodder, timber and other forest produce on the degraded forest and adjoining lands in order to meet the demands for these items;
• Sponsor research and extension of research findings to disseminate new and proper technologies for the regeneration and development of degraded forest areas and adjoining lands;
• Create general awareness and help foster people's movement for promoting afforestation and eco-development with the assistance of voluntary agencies, non-government organisations, Panchayati Raj institutions and others and promote participatory and sustainable management of degraded forest areas and adjoining lands;
• Coordinate and monitor the Action Plans for afforestation, tree planting, ecological restoration and eco-development
• Undertake all other measures necessary for promoting afforestation, tree planting, ecological restoration and eco-development activities in the country.

CONCLUSION

The result revealed that, the plantation raised by afforestation trails, so far have attained great success by getting the survival percent from 80-85%. In order to get maximum yield, the plantation management practices should be continued for some more years. To conclude, this study will be helpful to those engaged in large scale plantation establishment by afforestation methods.